এৰিষ্ট'টল: বিভিন্ন সংশোধনসমূহৰ মাজৰ পাৰ্থক্য

অসমীয়া ৱিকিপিডিয়াৰ পৰা
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208 নং শাৰী: 208 নং শাৰী:
Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].<ref>Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_0 The Complete Fables By Aesop] Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</ref>
Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].<ref>Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_0 The Complete Fables By Aesop] Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.</ref>


==কিংবদন্তী==
==Legacy==
[[File:Aristotle with a Bust of Homer.jpg|thumb|Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, by [[Rembrandt]]]]
[[File:Aristotle with a Bust of Homer.jpg|thumb|Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, by [[Rembrandt]]]]
এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মৃত্যুৰ ২৩০০ বছৰৰ পিছতো তেওঁ বৰ্তমানলৈকে বিশ্বৰ আটাইতকৈ প্ৰভাৱশালী ব্যক্তিসকলৰ এজন বুলি পৰিগণিত হৈ আছে৷ মানুহৰ জ্ঞানৰ প্ৰতিখন ক্ষেত্ৰলৈকে তেওঁ অৰিহণা আগবঢ়াই গৈছে৷ তাৰ লগতে নতুন নতুন ক্ষেত্ৰৌ তেওঁ উদ্ভাৱন কৰি গৈছে৷ দাৰ্শনিক 'Bryan Magee'ৰ মতে তেওঁৰ সমপৰ্য্যায়ৰ জ্ঞান কোনো অন্য কোনো ব্যক্তিৰে থাকিব নে নাথাকে সেয়ে সন্দেহজনক ("it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did")<ref>{{cite book |last= Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=2010 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page= 34}}</ref> অসংখ্য কৃতিত্ব সমূহৰ ভিতৰত অন্যতম হৈছে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ যুক্তি ([[formal logic]]) উদ্ভাৱন<ref>W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&pg=PA156&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter]''". [[Cambridge University Press]]. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4</ref> , প্ৰাণীবিজ্ঞান আৰু বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতিৰ প্ৰতি অতুলনীয় অৱদান৷<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle| archivedate= 22 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Story of Philosophy]] |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 |page= 92}}</ref>
এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মৃত্যুৰ ২৩০০ বছৰৰ পিছতো তেওঁ বৰ্তমানলৈকে বিশ্বৰ আটাইতকৈ প্ৰভাৱশালী ব্যক্তিসকলৰ এজন বুলি পৰিগণিত হৈ আছে৷ মানুহৰ জ্ঞানৰ প্ৰতিখন ক্ষেত্ৰলৈকে তেওঁ অৰিহণা আগবঢ়াই গৈছে৷ তাৰ লগতে নতুন নতুন ক্ষেত্ৰৌ তেওঁ উদ্ভাৱন কৰি গৈছে৷ দাৰ্শনিক 'Bryan Magee'ৰ মতে তেওঁৰ সমপৰ্য্যায়ৰ জ্ঞান কোনো অন্য কোনো ব্যক্তিৰে থাকিব নে নাথাকে সেয়ে সন্দেহজনক ("it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did")<ref>{{cite book |last= Magee |first=Bryan |authorlink=Bryan Magee |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=2010 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |page= 34}}</ref> অসংখ্য কৃতিত্ব সমূহৰ ভিতৰত অন্যতম হৈছে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ যুক্তি ([[formal logic]]) উদ্ভাৱন<ref>W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC&pg=PA156&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter]''". [[Cambridge University Press]]. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4</ref> , প্ৰাণীবিজ্ঞান আৰু বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতিৰ প্ৰতি অতুলনীয় অৱদান৷<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle| archivedate= 22 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Story of Philosophy]] |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 |page= 92}}</ref>


===পৰৱৰ্ত্তী গ্ৰীক দাৰ্শনিকসকল===
===Later Greek philosophers===
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Meno]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and [[Theophrastus]]. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''</ref>
এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ কৰ্মসমূহৰ প্ৰভাৱ তেওঁৰ [[Peripatetic school]] শিষ্যৰ সংখ্যা বঢ়াৰ লগে লগে বৃদ্ধি পাবলৈ ধৰিলে৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ প্ৰিয় শিষ্যসকলৰ ভিতৰত এৰিষ্ট'জেনাছ (Aristoxenus), Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, আৰু Theophrastus আদিয়ে প্ৰধান৷ Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''</ref>


===Influence on Byzantine scholars===
===Influence on Byzantine scholars===

09:44, 24 November 2013ৰ সংস্কৰণ

Aristotle

Marble bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by Lysippus c. 330 BC. The alabaster mantle is modern.
সম্পূৰ্ণ নাম Aristotle
জন্ম 384 BC
Stagira, Chalcidice
মৃত্যু 322 BC (aged 62)
Euboea
যুগ Ancient philosophy
অঞ্চল Western philosophy
ধাৰা Peripatetic school
Aristotelianism
আগ্ৰহ Physics, Metaphysics, Poetry, Theatre, Music, Rhetoric, Politics, Government, Ethics, Biology, Zoology
উল্লেখযোগ্য কৰ্ম Golden mean, Aristotelian logic, syllogism, hexis, hylomorphism, Aristotle's theory of soul
প্ৰভাৱিত হয়
প্ৰভাৱিত কৰে

এৰিষ্ট'টল (প্ৰাচীন গ্ৰীক: Ἀριστοτέλης [aristotélɛːs], Aristotélēs) (৩৮৪ খৃঃপূঃ- ৩২২ খৃঃপূঃ)[1] এগৰাকী গ্ৰীক দাৰ্শনিক আছিল। তেওঁৰ জন্ম ৩৮৪ খৃঃপূঃত গ্ৰীক দেশৰ এখন প্ৰাচীন নগৰ ষ্টেজাইৰাত হৈছিল। তেওঁৰ শৈশৱ অৱস্থাতে পিতৃ নিকোমাকাচৰ (Nicomachus) মৃত্যু হৈছিল। ফলস্বৰূপে তেওঁ এজন অভিভাৱকৰ তত্বাৱধানত ডাঙৰ-দীঘল হৈছিল। ১৮ বছৰ বয়সত এৰিষ্ট'টলে এথেঞ্চত অৱস্থিত প্লেটোৰ শিক্ষানুষ্ঠানত ভৰ্তি হৈছিল আৰু ৩৭ বছৰ বয়সলৈ তেওঁ তাত আছিল। তেওঁৰ ৰচনাই পদাৰ্থবিদ্যা, অধিবিদ্যা, কবিতা, নাট্যশাস্ত্ৰ, সঙ্গীত, তৰ্কশাস্ত্ৰ, বাখ্যান শাস্ত্ৰ ভাষাতত্ব,ৰাজনীতি বিজ্ঞান, চৰকাৰ, ন্যায়শাস্ত্ৰ, জীৱবিদ্যা, প্ৰাণীবিদ্যা আদি বিভিন্ন বিষয় সামৰি লৈছে। তেওঁৰ ৰচনাই পোন প্ৰথমবাৰৰ বাবে ন্যায়শাস্ত্ৰ, নন্দনতত্ব, তৰ্কশাস্ত্ৰ, বিজ্ঞান, ৰাজনীতি আৰু অধিবিদ্যাক সাঙুৰি পশ্চিমীয়া দৰ্শনশাস্ত্ৰৰ সৰ্বাত্মক পদ্ধতি এটাৰ সৃষ্টি কৰিছিল। প্লেটোৰ মৃত্যুৰ পিছতে তেওঁ এথেঞ্চৰ পৰা আঁতৰি আহিছিল। মেচিডনীয়াৰ ৰজা ফিলিপ দ্বিতীয়ৰ অনুৰোধ মৰ্মে তেওঁ ৩৫৬ খৃঃপূঃৰ পৰা ৩২৩ খৃঃপূঃলৈ আলেকজেণ্ডাৰৰ গৃহ শিক্ষকতাৰ দায়িত্ব গ্ৰহণ কৰিছিল।


Aristotle achieved merit through teaching Alexander the Great. This distinction allowed him many opportunities, including an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum with which many of his hundreds of books were produced. His writings cover many topics, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of Platonism, but following Plato’s death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to empiricism .[2] He believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotle’s views on natural sciences, including philosophy of the mind, body, sensory experience, memory, and biology represent the groundwork underlying many of his works. Many aspects of Aristotelian thought remain an active academic study, however, many of his writing are now lost with only one-third of his original works still surviving .[3]

Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic.

In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as 'المعلم الأول' – "The First Teacher".

His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"),[4] it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.[5]

জীৱন

এৰিষ্ট'টল নামৰ অৰ্থ হ'ল "সৰ্বোত্তম উদ্দেশ্য"।[6] ৩৮৪ খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্বত এতিয়াৰ গ্ৰীচৰ থেছাল'নিকি চহৰৰপৰা পূবে 55 km (34 মাইল) দূৰত্বত খল্কিডিকি উপদ্বীপৰ ষ্টেজাইৰা গাঁৱত তেওঁৰ জন্ম হৈছিল।[7] তেওঁৰ পিতৃ নিক'মাকুছ আছিল মেচিডনৰ ৰজা আমিণ্টছৰ ব্যক্তিগত চিকিৎসক। এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ শৈশৱৰ বিষয়ে বেছি তথ্য পোৱা নাযায় যদিও সম্ভৱতঃ তেওঁ বেছিভাগ সময় মেচিডনৰ ৰাজপ্ৰাসাদত অতিবাহিত কৰিছিল আৰু এনেকৈয়ে তেওঁৰ মেচিডনৰ ৰাজবংশৰ লগত প্ৰথম সম্পৰ্ক স্থাপন হৈছিল।[8]

প্ৰায় ১৮ বছৰ বয়সত প্লেট'জ একাডেমীত (Plato's Academy) শিক্ষাগ্ৰহণৰ বাবে তেওঁ এথেন্সলৈ যায়। প্ৰায় ২০ বছৰ সেই শিক্ষানুস্থানত থাকি তেওঁ ৩৪৮/৪৭ খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্বত এথেন্স ত্যাগ কৰে। প্ৰচলিত কাহিনীমতে প্লেট'ৰ মৃত্যুৰ পাছত একাডেমীৰ নিয়ন্ত্ৰণ প্লেট'ৰ ভতিজাক স্পে'ছিপছৰ হাতলৈ যোৱাৰ পাছত একাডেমীৰ সিদ্ধান্তত অসন্তুষ্ট হৈ তেওঁ একাডেমী ত্যাগ কৰে। অৱশ্যে এইটোও সম্ভৱ যে মেচিডনবিৰোধী অনুভূতিলৈ ভয় কৰি প্লেট'ৰ মৃত্যুৰ আগেয়েই তেওঁ একাডেমী ত্যাগ কৰিছিল।[9]

He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) Pythias. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC.[10]

An early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (r) and Alexander the Great (l).

Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.[11] Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".[11]

By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.[12]

It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 BC when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[10] Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics.

Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.[13]

Near the end of Alexander's life, Alexander began to suspect plots against himself, and threatened Aristotle in letters. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity, and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew Callisthenes as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence for this.[14]

Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared. Eurymedon the hierophant denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor. Aristotle fled the city to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy,"[15][16] a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Euboea of natural causes within the same year: 322 BC. Aristotle named chief executor his student Antipater and left a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.[17]

In general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative, and few except the main points are agreed by all historians.[18]

স্মৃতি

স্মৃতি

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মত অনুসৰি স্মৃতি হ'ল এটা অভিজ্ঞতাক মনত ৰখা আৰু এই মনত ৰখা কথাটোৰ অন্তৰ্ভাগৰ উপস্থিতিৰ পৰা অতীতত ঘটাৰ পাৰ্থক্য চিনিব পৰাৰ ক্ষমতা[19]৷ অন্য অৰ্থত, এৰিষ্ট'টলে De Anima ৰ যোগেদি দিয়া সংজ্ঞা অনুসৰি স্মৃতি একধৰণৰ মানসিক চিত্ৰ (phantasm) যি মানুহৰ সত্তা মুদ্ৰিত ( imprint) হৈ পৰে৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলে বিশ্বাস কৰিছিল যে এনধৰণৰ মানসিক চিত্ৰবোৰ অৰ্ধতৰল এক শাৰিৰীক অংগত মুদ্ৰিত হৈ পৰে আৰু কিছু পৰিৱৰ্ত্তনৰ যোগেদি স্মৃতিলৈ ৰূপান্তৰিত হয়৷ এই অৰ্ধতৰল শাৰিৰীক অংগ অৰ্থাৎ স্নায়ুতন্ত্ৰই যেতিয়া কোনো জটিল উদ্দীপক (stimuli)ৰ সকলোবোৰ মানসিক চিত্ৰ একেলগে মুদ্ৰন কৰিব নোৱাৰে তেতিয়াই স্মৃতিৰ উৎপত্তি হয়৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ ধাৰণা অনুসৰি এই পৰিৱৰ্ত্তন সমূহ মানুহৰ অনুভৱ বা চিন্তাৰ দৰে একেই৷ [20] অনুভৱ (sense perception) ৰ সম্পূৰ্ণ প্ৰক্ৰিয়াৰ শেষ উৎপাদন সামগ্ৰীটো হৈছে স্নায়ুতন্ত্ৰত মুদ্ৰিত হোৱা এই মানসিক চিত্ৰবোৰ৷ দেখি বা শুনি হোৱা যিকোনো অভিজ্ঞতাৰে এনেদৰে মানসিক চিত্ৰবোৰ স্মৃতি হিচাপে ৰৈ যায়৷ [21]

এৰিষ্ট'টলে স্মৃতি শব্দটো মূলত: দুটা অৰ্থত ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিছিল৷ প্ৰথমটো হ'ল, কোনো অভিজ্ঞতাই জন্ম দিয়া অনু্ভূতিৰ মুদ্ৰন কৰাৰ ক্ষমতা আৰু দ্বিতীয়টো হ'ল, কোনো বিশেষ সময়ত হোৱা এনে মুদ্ৰনৰ সৈতে উপজা বৌদ্ধিক অস্থিৰতা (intellectual anxiety)৷ যিহেতু স্মৃতি কিছু সময়ৰ বিৰতিত উৎপন্ন হয়, ই কেৱল অনুভূতি বা কোনো ভাৱ নহয়৷ সেয়ে স্মৃতি অতীতৰ [22] , অনুমান (prediction) ভৱিষ্যতৰ আৰু অনুভূতি (sensation) বৰ্তমানৰ৷ আমাৰ মনত থকা মানসিক চিত্ৰ মুদ্ৰিত ৰুপবোৰ হঠাতে আনিব (retrieval) নোৱাৰি৷ ইয়াৰ বাবে এক মাধ্যম (transitional channel ) ৰ প্ৰয়োজন হয়৷

এৰিষ্ট'টলে ধাৰণা কৰিছিল যে ৰসবোধ কম (slow-witted) থকা লোকৰ স্মৃতি শক্তি তুলনামূলকভাৱে বেছি ভাল হ'ব কাৰণ, তেনে লোকৰ মগজুত থকা জুলীয়া পদাৰ্থবোৰে স্মৃতিশক্তিৰ লগত জড়িত অংগৰ মুদ্ৰন ক্ষমতা নোহোৱা নকৰে৷ তেওঁ বিশ্বাস কৰিছিল যে শিশু আৰু বৃদ্ব লোকে ভালদৰে অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ মুদ্ৰণ কৰিব নোৱাৰে৷ শিশুৰ দেহৰ বৃদ্বিৰ লগে লগে মগজুৰো ঘনাই পৰিৱৰ্ত্তন হয়৷ তেনেদৰে বৃদ্ধ লোকৰ অংগসমূহৰ কাৰ্য্যক্ষমতাও বয়সৰ লগে লগে কমি আহে৷ যিহেতু বৌদ্ধিক কাৰ্য্য (intellectual functions) স্মৃতিৰ সৈতে জড়িত নহয়, সেয়ে সময়বোধ থকা কিছুমান জীৱ-জন্তুৰো স্মৃতি থকা দেখা যায়৷

স্মৰণ

এৰিষ্টট'লে ধাৰণা কৰিছিল যে যিহেতু মানুহে সকলোধৰণৰ অনুভূতিৰ পৰা মানসিক চিত্ৰ বা মুদ্ৰণ গ্ৰহণ কৰিব পাৰে গতিকে মানুহৰ মনত নিৰন্তৰভাৱে নতুন নতুন অভিজ্ঞতাৰ পৰা ন ন মুদ্ৰিত স্মৃতি সৃষ্টি হয়৷ এই মানসিক চিত্ৰৰ সন্ধান কৰোতে মানুহে প্ৰকৃততে স্মৃতিৰেই সন্ধান কৰে৷[23] এনেদৰে সন্ধান কৰোঁতে এটাৰ পিছত আনটোকৈ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ আহিলে স্মৰণ (Recollection) প্ৰক্ৰিয়াৰ সৃষ্টি হয়৷ যেতিয়া মানুহে কোনো বিশেষ অভিজ্ঞতা মনত পেলায়, তেতিয়া মানুহৰ মগজুৱে পূৰ্বৰ কিছুমান অভিজ্ঞতাৰ মুদ্ৰিত ৰূপটোৰ সন্ধান কৰে আৰু এইসমূহে সেই বিশেষ অভিজ্ঞতাটো মনত পেলোৱাত সহায় কৰে৷ [24]

গতিকে মনত পেলোৱা (Recollection) হ'ল স্মৃতিত থকা কোনো মুদ্ৰণ কিছু সময়ৰ পিছত উলিয়াই অনা প্ৰক্ৰিয়া৷ এনেদৰে সাঁচি থোৱা কোনো তথ্যৰ পুনৰ উলিয়াই অনাৰ প্ৰক্ৰিয়া নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে মানুহৰ 'mnemonic' ক্ষমতাৰ ওপৰত নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে৷ [25] কেৱল মানুহেহে বৌদ্ধিক কাৰ্য্যৰ মুদ্ৰণসমূহ যেনে সংখ্যা বা শব্দ আদি মনত ৰাখিবলৈ সক্ষম৷ অৱশ্যে সময়বোধ থকা অন্য প্ৰণিসমূহেও পূৰ্বৰ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ মনত পেলাব পাৰে৷ কোনো এটা মুদ্ৰণ মনত পেলালে ইয়াৰ লগত কোনো প্ৰকাৰে জড়িত থকা অন্য বহুতু মুদ্ৰণ স্মৃতি হৈ মনলৈ আহিব পাৰে৷ [26]

এৰিষ্টটলে বিশ্বাস কৰিছিল যে কিছুমান চিন্তাৰ সমষ্টিৰে মনলৈ আনি দিয়া বিশেষ মুদ্ৰণবোৰ তিনিধৰণৰ সম্পৰ্কেৰে ইটো-সিটোৰ সৈতে সংযোজিত হৈ থাকে৷ এইবোৰ হৈছে-মিল (similarity),অমিল (contrast) আৰু সংস্পৰ্শ (contiguity)৷ এই তিনিটাই তেওঁৰ 'Laws of Association' ৰ মূল উপাদান৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলে ধাৰণা কৰিছিল যে অতীতৰ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ মানুহৰ মনতে লুকাই থাকে৷ এটা শক্তিয়ে প্ৰকৃতি অভিজ্ঞতাটো এই পূৰ্বৰ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ জাগ্ৰত কৰি উলিয়াই আনে৷ তেওঁৰ মতে সংযোগ (association) হৈছে মানসিক সত্ত্বাত লুকাই থকা এক শক্তি৷ ই পুৰ্বৰ অভিজ্ঞতাৰ অপ্ৰকাশিক অংশক জাগ্ৰত কৰি তোলে আৰু মনত পেলোৱাত সহায় কৰে৷ [27]

চিন্তা (Thought)

যুক্তি (Logic)

Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a scholar of the 15th century A.D.

এৰিষ্ট'টলে পোনপ্ৰথমে যুক্তি সম্পৰ্কীয় চিন্তা চৰ্চা কৰা বুলি জনা যায়৷ তেওঁৰ ধাৰণাসমূহ উনৈশ শতিকা পৰ্যন্ত পশ্চিমীয়া দেশসমূহত প্ৰভূতভাৱে প্ৰচলিত আছিল৷[28]

History

Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".[29] However, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, by Prodicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a deductive system, he could never actually construct one, thus he relied instead on his dialectic.[30]

Geology

ছাৰ্লছ ল্যেল (Charles Lyell ) ৰ Principles of Geology নামৰ গ্ৰন্থখনত উল্লেখ কৰা অনুসৰি-

He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the Palus Maeotis within sixty years from his own time ... He alludes ... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten.

He says [12th chapter of his Meteorics] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'[31]

পদাৰ্থ বিদ্যা

পাচঁটা উপাদান

এম্পেড’ক্লেচে আগবঢ়োৱা চাৰিটা উপাদানৰ ধাৰণাৰ লগত এৰিষ্ট'টলে পঞ্চমটো উপাদানৰ ধাৰণা আগবঢ়াই,

  • পৃথিৱী (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি চেঁচা আৰু শুকান; ই আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ গোটা বস্তুৰ সৈতে একে।
  • পানী (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি চেঁচা আৰু ভিজা; ই আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ তৰল পদাৰ্থৰ সৈতে একে।
  • বায়ু (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি তপত আৰু ভিজা; ই আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ গেছীয় পদাৰ্থৰ সৈতে একে।
  • জুই (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি তপত আৰু শুকান; ইয়াৰ আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ প্লাজমা আৰু তাপৰ সৈতে সম্পৰ্ক আছে।
  • ইথাৰ (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি মহাকাশত বিয়পি আছে আৰু যিহেৰে গ্ৰহ নক্ষত্ৰবোৰ গঠিত হৈছে।


Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is "natural motion"—motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles.

Motion

Aristotle defined motion as the actuality of a potentiality as such.[32] Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.[33]

Causality, the four causes

Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors:

  • Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino.
  • The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings.
  • The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over.
  • The final cause is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.

Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, since it cannot fall of its own accord.

Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.

Optics

Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a camera obscura can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.[34]

Chance and spontaneity

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place.

Metaphysics

Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau

Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."

Substance, potentiality and actuality

Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence (ousia) in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[35]

Universals and particulars

Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.

Biology and medicine

In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded.

Octopus swimming
Torpedo fuscomaculata
Leopard shark

Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as History of Animals, Generation of Animals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (selachians).[36]

Classification of living things

Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of hemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).[37]

Influence on Hellenistic medicine

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[38] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.

The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[39] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[40] Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.[41]

Psychology

Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psyche, often known by its Latin title De Anima), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them.

For Aristotle, the soul (psyche) was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the form of a living being. Since all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[42]

Practical philosophy

Ethics

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).[43]

Politics

Like Aristotle, conservatives generally accept the world as it is; they distrust the politics of abstract reason – that is, reason divorced from experience.
Benjamin Wiker[44]

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[45] He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal". Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[46]

Rhetoric and poetics

Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[47] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[48] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.[49]

While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[50] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[51]

Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[52]

কিংবদন্তী

Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, by Rembrandt

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মৃত্যুৰ ২৩০০ বছৰৰ পিছতো তেওঁ বৰ্তমানলৈকে বিশ্বৰ আটাইতকৈ প্ৰভাৱশালী ব্যক্তিসকলৰ এজন বুলি পৰিগণিত হৈ আছে৷ মানুহৰ জ্ঞানৰ প্ৰতিখন ক্ষেত্ৰলৈকে তেওঁ অৰিহণা আগবঢ়াই গৈছে৷ তাৰ লগতে নতুন নতুন ক্ষেত্ৰৌ তেওঁ উদ্ভাৱন কৰি গৈছে৷ দাৰ্শনিক 'Bryan Magee'ৰ মতে তেওঁৰ সমপৰ্য্যায়ৰ জ্ঞান কোনো অন্য কোনো ব্যক্তিৰে থাকিব নে নাথাকে সেয়ে সন্দেহজনক ("it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did")[53] অসংখ্য কৃতিত্ব সমূহৰ ভিতৰত অন্যতম হৈছে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ যুক্তি (formal logic) উদ্ভাৱন[54] , প্ৰাণীবিজ্ঞান আৰু বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতিৰ প্ৰতি অতুলনীয় অৱদান৷[55][56]

পৰৱৰ্ত্তী গ্ৰীক দাৰ্শনিকসকল

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ কৰ্মসমূহৰ প্ৰভাৱ তেওঁৰ Peripatetic school ত শিষ্যৰ সংখ্যা বঢ়াৰ লগে লগে বৃদ্ধি পাবলৈ ধৰিলে৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ প্ৰিয় শিষ্যসকলৰ ভিতৰত এৰিষ্ট'জেনাছ (Aristoxenus), Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, আৰু Theophrastus আদিয়ে প্ৰধান৷ Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[57]

Influence on Byzantine scholars

Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were John Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century.[58] John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.[59] After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.[60]

Influence on Islamic theologians

Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,[61] as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus considered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy[62] and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.[63] Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".[64] The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.[65]

In accordance with the Greek theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with Plato essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.[61]

Influence on Western Christian theologians

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona,[66] and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke.

After Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance.[67] Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having

                      at his beddes heed
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
Of aristotle and his philosophie,[68]

The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell,

I saw the Master there of those who know,
Amid the philosophic family,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.[69]

Post-Enlightenment thinkers

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.[70] However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or arete – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.[71]

List of works

The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.

Honours

Aristotle Mountains on Oscar II Coast in Graham Land, Antarctica are named after Aristotle who was the first to conjecture the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region, calling it Antarctica.[72]


তথ্যসুত্ৰ

  1. That these undisputed dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BCE, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, p. 253.
  2. Barnes 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 6.
  3. Barnes 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 9.
  4. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106 BC – 43 BC). "flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles". Academica. http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 25 January 2007. 
  5. Jonathan Barnes, "Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 9.
  6. Campbell, Michael. "Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Aristotle". Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names. www.behindthename.com. http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 6 April 2012. 
  7. McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999). Aristotle: The Great Philosophers. Routledge. পৃষ্ঠা. 5. ISBN 0-415-92392-1. 
  8. Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Life", A Companion to Aristotle (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 4.
  9. Carnes Lord, Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
  10. 10.0 10.1 Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972
  11. 11.0 11.1 Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.58–59
  12. William George Smith,Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 3, p. 88
  13. Neill, Alex; Aaron Ridley (1995). The Philosophy of Art: Readings Ancient and Modern. McGraw Hill. পৃষ্ঠা. 488. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0070461929/. 
  14. Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.379,459
  15. Jones, W.T. (1980). The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. পৃষ্ঠা. 216. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0155383124/. 
  16. Vita Marciana 41, cf. Aelian Varia historica 3.36, Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.
  17. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase Aristotle's Will
  18. See Shields, C., "Aristotle's Philosophical Life and Writings" in The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle (Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 3–16. Düring, I., Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, (Göteborg, 1957) collects the ancient biographies of Aristotle.
  19. Bloch, David (2007). Aristotle on Memory and Recollection. পৃষ্ঠা. 12. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=QwTHng_5RqAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection&ots=Mx4oCdBGv-&sig=RI_bdGZvcYi7-dT_Em547aTi2XE#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20on%20Memory%20and%20Recollection&f=false. 
  20. Bloch 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 61.
  21. Carruthers, Mary (2007). The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture. পৃষ্ঠা. 16. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dntrAnqfIasC&oi=fnd&pg=PR8&dq=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times&ots=we1jd9n54J&sig=Lr9XAjRR9tiUyA0rCgI04VzEuKo#v=onepage&q=The%20book%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20study%20of%20memory%20in%20medieval%20times&f=false. 
  22. Bloch 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 25.
  23. Warren, Howard (1921). A History of the Association Psychology. পৃষ্ঠা. 30. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&ots=YfWh-rerz2&sig=1U6rgT1pNbwy18xC50m9kopXVXw#v=onepage&q=The%20history%20of%20the%20association%20of%20psychology&f=false. 
  24. Warren 1921, পৃষ্ঠা. 25.
  25. Carruthers 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 19.
  26. Warren 1921, পৃষ্ঠা. 296.
  27. Warren 1921, পৃষ্ঠা. 259.
  28. Corcoran, John (2009). “Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.
  29. Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. প্ৰকাশক Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. 
  30. Bocheński, 1951.
  31. Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, 1832, p.17
  32. Physics 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5
  33. Sachs, Joe (2005), "Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ 
  34. Michael Lahanas. "Optics and ancient Greeks". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 26 April 2009. 
  35. Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1043a 10–30
  36. Singer, Charles. A short history of biology. Oxford 1931.
  37. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 pp. 348
  38. Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp 252
  39. Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 56
  40. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90–94; quotation from p 91
  41. Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy, p 252
  42. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article "Psychology".
  43. Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7 1098a.
  44. "Aristotle: Father of political conservatism". Wnd.com. 14 August 2010. http://www.wnd.com/2010/08/191121। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 15 October 2012. 
  45. Politics 1253a19–24
  46. Ebenstein, Alan; William Ebenstein (2002). Introduction to Political Thinkers. Wadsworth Group. পৃষ্ঠা. 59. 
  47. Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a
  48. Aristotle, Poetics III
  49. Aristotle, Poetics IV
  50. Aristotle, Poetics VI
  51. Aristotle, Poetics XXVI
  52. Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), The Complete Fables By Aesop Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.
  53. Magee, Bryan (2010). The Story of Philosophy. Dorling Kindersley. পৃষ্ঠা. 34. 
  54. W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter". Cambridge University Press. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4
  55. "Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 26 April 2009. 
  56. Durant, Will (1926 (2006)). The Story of Philosophy. প্ৰকাশক United States: Simon & Schuster, Inc.. পৃষ্ঠা. 92. ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4. 
  57. Plutarch, Life of Alexander
  58. Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed London, 1990, 20, 28, 35–36.
  59. Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed (London, 1990) 233–274.
  60. Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed (London, 1990) 20–21; 28–29, 393–406; 407–408.
  61. 61.0 61.1 Encyclopedia of Islam, Aristutalis
  62. Rasa'il I, 103, 17, Abu Rida
  63. Comm. Magnum in Aristotle, De Anima, III, 2, 43 Crawford
  64. al-mua'llim al-thani, Aristutalis
  65. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1996). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Curzon Press. পৃষ্ঠা. 59–60. ISBN 0-7007-0314-4. 
  66. Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  67. Aristotelianism in the Renaissance entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  68. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, Prologue, lines 295–295
  69. vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia.
    Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
    quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
    che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;
    Dante, L'Inferno (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135
  70. Durant, p. 86
  71. Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007, passim.
  72. Aristotle Mountains. SCAR Composite Antarctic Gazetteer.

লগতে চাওক

The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.

  • Ackrill J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA.
  • Ackrill, J. L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. প্ৰকাশক Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 
  • Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. প্ৰকাশক New York: Macmillan.  A popular exposition for the general reader.
  • Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B. eds. On Aristotle's Categories. প্ৰকাশক Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X. 
  • Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols. প্ৰকাশক Oxford: Clarendon Press.  These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
  • Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
  • Barnes J. (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press.
  • Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. প্ৰকাশক Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. 
  • Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
  • Burnyeat, M. F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
  • Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. 1. প্ৰকাশক Waltham, Mass: Blaisdell Publishing Co.. 
  • Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696.
  • Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
  • Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. প্ৰকাশক New York: Twayne Publishers. 
  • Frede, Michael. (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. 3. প্ৰকাশক London: Cape. 
  • Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF.
  • Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. 
  • Halper, Edward C. (2007). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha — Delta, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6.
  • Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6.
  • Irwin, T. H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-824290-5.
  • Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard. ed. Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
  • Jori, Alberto. (2003). Aristotele, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1.
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  • Knight, Kelvin. (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
  • Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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  • Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
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  • Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy খণ্ড 50: 125–150.  [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
  • Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
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  • Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক London: Routledge.  A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.
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  • Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally.
  • Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. প্ৰকাশক Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
  • Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology". Greek Biology and Medicine. Archived from the original on 11 February 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html. 
  • Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. প্ৰকাশক Bloomington: Indiana U. Press.  For the general reader.
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