এৰিষ্ট'টল: বিভিন্ন সংশোধনসমূহৰ মাজৰ পাৰ্থক্য

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Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.
Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.


====Optics====
====আলোকবিজ্ঞান (Optics)====
Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a [[camera obscura]] can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in ''Problemata''. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or [[aperture]], to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]]. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Lahanas |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |publisher=Mlahanas.de |date= |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm| archivedate= 11 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>
Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a [[camera obscura]] can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in ''Problemata''. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or [[aperture]], to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]]. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Lahanas |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |publisher=Mlahanas.de |date= |accessdate=26 April 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm| archivedate= 11 April 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref>


142 নং শাৰী: 142 নং শাৰী:
===Metaphysics===
===Metaphysics===
[[File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|thumb|Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the [[University of Freiburg]] [[Freiburg im Breisgau|im Breisgau]]]]
[[File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|thumb|Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the [[University of Freiburg]] [[Freiburg im Breisgau|im Breisgau]]]]
{{Main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of [[hylomorphism|immaterial]] being," or of "being in the highest degree of [[abstraction]]." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."
Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of [[hylomorphism|immaterial]] being," or of "being in the highest degree of [[abstraction]]." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."


====Substance, potentiality and actuality====
====Substance, potentiality and actuality====
{{See also|Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] and [[essence]] (''ousia'') in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] (see also [[predicables]]) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1043a 10–30</ref>
Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] and [[essence]] (''ousia'') in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] (see also [[predicables]]) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1043a 10–30</ref>


====Universals and particulars====
====Universals and particulars====
{{Main|Aristotle's theory of universals}}

Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.
Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.


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[[File:Octopus3.jpg|thumb|Octopus swimming]]
[[File:Octopus3.jpg|thumb|Octopus swimming]]
[[File:Torpedo fuscomaculata2.jpg|thumb|''Torpedo fuscomaculata'']]
[[File:Triakis semifasciata.jpg|thumb|Leopard shark]]
[[File:Triakis semifasciata.jpg|thumb|Leopard shark]]


188 নং শাৰী: 183 নং শাৰী:


====Rhetoric and poetics====
====Rhetoric and poetics====
{{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Poetics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|imitative]], each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref>
Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|imitative]], each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref>



13:52, 28 November 2013ৰ সংস্কৰণ

Aristotle

Marble bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by Lysippus c. 330 BC. The alabaster mantle is modern.
সম্পূৰ্ণ নাম Aristotle
জন্ম 384 BC
Stagira, Chalcidice
মৃত্যু 322 BC (aged 62)
Euboea
যুগ Ancient philosophy
অঞ্চল Western philosophy
ধাৰা Peripatetic school
Aristotelianism
আগ্ৰহ Physics, Metaphysics, Poetry, Theatre, Music, Rhetoric, Politics, Government, Ethics, Biology, Zoology
উল্লেখযোগ্য কৰ্ম Golden mean, Aristotelian logic, syllogism, hexis, hylomorphism, Aristotle's theory of soul
প্ৰভাৱিত হয়
প্ৰভাৱিত কৰে

এৰিষ্ট'টল (প্ৰাচীন গ্ৰীক: Ἀριστοτέλης [aristotélɛːs], Aristotélēs) (৩৮৪ খৃঃপূঃ- ৩২২ খৃঃপূঃ)[1] এগৰাকী গ্ৰীক দাৰ্শনিক আছিল। তেওঁৰ জন্ম ৩৮৪ খৃঃপূঃত গ্ৰীক দেশৰ এখন প্ৰাচীন নগৰ ষ্টেজাইৰাত হৈছিল। তেওঁৰ শৈশৱ অৱস্থাতে পিতৃ নিকোমাকাচৰ (Nicomachus) মৃত্যু হৈছিল। ফলস্বৰূপে তেওঁ এজন অভিভাৱকৰ তত্বাৱধানত ডাঙৰ-দীঘল হৈছিল। ১৮ বছৰ বয়সত এৰিষ্ট'টলে এথেঞ্চত অৱস্থিত প্লেটোৰ শিক্ষানুষ্ঠানত ভৰ্তি হৈছিল আৰু ৩৭ বছৰ বয়সলৈ তেওঁ তাত আছিল। তেওঁৰ ৰচনাই পদাৰ্থবিদ্যা, অধিবিদ্যা, কবিতা, নাট্যশাস্ত্ৰ, সঙ্গীত, তৰ্কশাস্ত্ৰ, বাখ্যান শাস্ত্ৰ ভাষাতত্ব,ৰাজনীতি বিজ্ঞান, চৰকাৰ, ন্যায়শাস্ত্ৰ, জীৱবিদ্যা, প্ৰাণীবিদ্যা আদি বিভিন্ন বিষয় সামৰি লৈছে। তেওঁৰ ৰচনাই পোন প্ৰথমবাৰৰ বাবে ন্যায়শাস্ত্ৰ, নন্দনতত্ব, তৰ্কশাস্ত্ৰ, বিজ্ঞান, ৰাজনীতি আৰু অধিবিদ্যাক সাঙুৰি পশ্চিমীয়া দৰ্শনশাস্ত্ৰৰ সৰ্বাত্মক পদ্ধতি এটাৰ সৃষ্টি কৰিছিল। প্লেটোৰ মৃত্যুৰ পিছতে তেওঁ এথেঞ্চৰ পৰা আঁতৰি আহিছিল। মেচিডনীয়াৰ ৰজা ফিলিপ দ্বিতীয়ৰ অনুৰোধ মৰ্মে তেওঁ ৩৫৬ খৃঃপূঃৰ পৰা ৩২৩ খৃঃপূঃলৈ আলেকজেণ্ডাৰৰ গৃহ শিক্ষকতাৰ দায়িত্ব গ্ৰহণ কৰিছিল।

আলেক্‌জেণ্ডাৰৰ শিক্ষক হিচাবে এৰিষ্ট'টলে প্ৰসিদ্ধি লাভ কৰে। এই পদে তেওঁক অনেক যোগাৰ যন্ত্ৰ (ইং ৱিকিত থকামতে abundance of supplies) আৰু ৰাজকীয় সা সুবিধাৰ অধিকাৰী কৰে। তেওঁ নিজে প্ৰতিষ্ঠা কৰা বিদ্যালয়খনত শতাধিক কিতাপেৰে এক পুথিভঁৰালো মুকলি কৰিছিল৷ তেওঁৰ লিখনি সমূহে বহুতো বিষয়ত ধাৰণা প্ৰকাশ কৰিছিল৷ ইয়াৰ ভিতৰত উল্লেখযোগ্য হ'ল- পদাৰ্থবিদ্যা, কাব্য সাহিত্য, নাট্য, গীত, ভাষাবিজ্ঞান (linguistics),ৰাজনীতি , চৰকাৰ, জীৱবিজ্ঞান ইত্যাদি৷ প্লেট'ৰ শিষ্য হোৱাৰ বাবে এৰিষ্টট'ল জীৱনৰ আগভাগত 'প্লেট'নিজম' ( Platonism) ভাৱাদৰ্শত বিশ্বাসী আছিল যদিও পিছলৈ তেওঁ প্ৰয়োগবাদ (empiricism ) ৰ বিশ্বাসী হৈ উঠে৷ .[2] এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ কৰ্মৰাজিয়েই আধুনিক বিশ্বৰ বহুতো বিষয়ৰ প্ৰথম ভেঁটি প্ৰতিষ্ঠা কৰি গৈছে৷ [3]

তেওঁৰ দৰ্শনৰ ধাৰণাসমূহ বৰ্তমান শিক্ষাৰ এক অপৰিহাৰ্য অংশ৷ যদিও তেওঁ অসংখ্য ধাৰণা লিখনি আকাৰে প্ৰকাশ কৰিছিল , তথ্য অনুসৰি তেওঁৰ প্ৰায়ভাগ লিখনিয়ে সংৰক্ষণ কৰা নহ"ল৷ বৰ্তমান এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মূল কৰ্মৰ কেৱল এক তৃতীয়াংশহে সংৰক্ষিত হৈ থকা বুলি জনা যায়৷[4] [5]

জীৱন

এৰিষ্ট'টল নামৰ অৰ্থ হ'ল "সৰ্বোত্তম উদ্দেশ্য"।[6] ৩৮৪ খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্বত এতিয়াৰ গ্ৰীচৰ থেছাল'নিকি চহৰৰপৰা পূবে 55 km (34 মাইল) দূৰত্বত খল্কিডিকি উপদ্বীপৰ ষ্টেজাইৰা গাঁৱত তেওঁৰ জন্ম হৈছিল।[7] তেওঁৰ পিতৃ নিক'মাকুছ আছিল মেচিডনৰ ৰজা আমিণ্টছৰ ব্যক্তিগত চিকিৎসক। এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ শৈশৱৰ বিষয়ে বেছি তথ্য পোৱা নাযায় যদিও সম্ভৱতঃ তেওঁ বেছিভাগ সময় মেচিডনৰ ৰাজপ্ৰাসাদত অতিবাহিত কৰিছিল আৰু এনেকৈয়ে তেওঁৰ মেচিডনৰ ৰাজবংশৰ লগত প্ৰথম সম্পৰ্ক স্থাপন হৈছিল।[8]

প্ৰায় ১৮ বছৰ বয়সত প্লেট'জ একাডেমীত (Plato's Academy) শিক্ষাগ্ৰহণৰ বাবে তেওঁ এথেন্সলৈ যায়। প্ৰায় ২০ বছৰ সেই শিক্ষানুস্থানত থাকি তেওঁ ৩৪৮/৪৭ খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্বত এথেন্স ত্যাগ কৰে। প্ৰচলিত কাহিনীমতে প্লেট'ৰ মৃত্যুৰ পাছত একাডেমীৰ নিয়ন্ত্ৰণ প্লেট'ৰ ভতিজাক স্পে'ছিপছৰ হাতলৈ যোৱাৰ পাছত একাডেমীৰ সিদ্ধান্তত অসন্তুষ্ট হৈ তেওঁ একাডেমী ত্যাগ কৰে। অৱশ্যে এইটোও সম্ভৱ যে মেচিডনবিৰোধী অনুভূতিলৈ ভয় কৰি প্লেট'ৰ মৃত্যুৰ আগেয়েই তেওঁ একাডেমী ত্যাগ কৰিছিল।[9]

ইয়াৰ পিছত তেওঁ বন্ধু 'Hermias of Atarneus' ৰ এছিয়া মিনৰ (Asia Minor) ত থকা সভাসদলৈ Xenocrates ৰ সৈতে যায়৷ এছিয়াত থকা কালত এৰিষ্ট'টলে 'Theophrastus' ৰ সৈতে 'Lesbos' দ্বীপলৈ যায়৷ এই দ্বীপত দুয়ো মিলি ইয়াৰ উদ্ভিদ তথা প্ৰাণীসমূহৰ ওপৰত অধ্যয়ন কৰে বুলি জনা যায়৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলে হাৰমিয়াজ ( Hermias) ৰ ভতিজা পিথিয়াছ (Pythias) ৰ সৈতে বিবা্হ পাশত আবদ্ধ হয়৷ তেওঁলোকৰ এগৰাকী ছোৱালী সন্তানৰ জন্ম হয় যাৰ নামো পিথিয়াছ ৰখা হয়৷ হাৰমিয়াজৰ মৃত্যুৰ পিছতে এৰিষ্ট'টলক Philip II of Macedon এ এৰিষ্ট'টলক খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্য় ৩৪৩ শতিকাত তেওঁৰ পুত্ৰ আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ শিক্ষা দিবলৈ অনুৰোধ কৰে৷[10]

An early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (r) and Alexander the Great (l).

এৰিষ্ট'টল ৰাজকীয় বিদ্যালয় (royal academy) মেচিডন ( Macedon) প্ৰধান শিক্ষ হিচাপে অধিষ্ঠিত হয়৷ এইসময়ছোৱাত আলেকজেণ্ডাৰৰ উপৰিও ভৱিষ্যতৰ মহাৰজা টলেমি ( Ptolemy) আৰু কেছেণ্ডাৰ ( Cassande) ক এৰিষ্ট'টলে শিক্ষা দিয়ে৷ [11] এৰিষ্ট'টলে আলেকজেণ্ডাৰক পূবৰ দেশসমূহ জয় কৰিবলৈ উৎসাহ দিয়ে বুলি জনা যায়৷ [11]

খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্ব ৩৩৫ শতিকাত তেওঁ এথেন্সলৈ উভতি আহে আৰু 'Lyceum' নামেৰে নিজাকৈ বিদ্যালয় স্থাপন কৰে৷ এই বিদ্যালয় এৰিষ্ট'টলে বাৰ বছৰ ধৰি বিভিন্ন পাঠদান পৰিচালনা কৰে৷ এইসময়তে এথেন্সত তেওঁৰ পত্নী পিথিয়াছৰ মৃত্যু হয়৷ পৰৱৰ্ত্তী কালত তেওঁ হাৰ্পিলিছ ( Herpyllis ) ক বিয়া কৰায় আৰু তেওঁলোকৰ এটা ল'ৰাসন্তান জন্ম হয় যাৰ নাম Nicomachus ৰাখে৷ [12]

এথেন্সত থকা এই কালছোৱাতে খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্য় ৩৩৫-৩২৩ শতিকাৰ ভিতৰত এৰিষ্ট'টলে তেওঁৰ প্ৰায়ভাগ সৃষ্টি কৰা বুলি জনা যায়৷ [10] তেওঁৰ লিখনিসমূহৰ ক্ষুদ্ৰ অংশএটাহে সংৰক্ষণ হৈ থাকিল৷ ইয়াৰ ভিতৰত বিদ্যালয়ত বা শিষ্যসকলক কৰা পাঠদানৰ অংশসমূহেই প্ৰধান৷ এইসমূহৰ ভিতৰত প্ৰধান হ'ল-Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) আৰু Poetics.

এৰিষ্ট'টলে সেইসময়ৰ সম্ভৱ হোৰা সকলোবোৰ বিষয় অধ্যয়ন কৰাই নহয়, বেছিভাগতেই তেওঁ অতি উল্লেখযোগ্য অৱদানো আগবঢ়াই গৈছে৷ তাত্বিক বিজ্ঞানৰ ভিতৰত এৰিষ্ট'টলে anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics আৰু প্ৰাণীবিজ্ঞান অধ্যয়ন কৰিছিল৷ দৰ্শনৰ ক্ষেত্ৰত তেওঁ aesthetics, ethics, চৰকাৰ, metaphysics, ৰাজনীতি, মনোবিজ্ঞান, rhetoric আৰু theology আদি সম্পৰ্কত লিখিছিল৷ তাৰোপৰি তেওঁ শিক্ষা, বৈদেশিক নীতি, সাহিত্য আদিও অধ্যয়ন কৰিছিল৷ তেওঁৰ সমূহ কৰ্মৰাজিয়ে গ্ৰীক সকলৰ জ্ঞানৰ এক বিশ্বকোষকে সূচায়৷ [13]

আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ জীৱনৰ শেষৰফালে তেওঁ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ ধাৰণাসমূহৰ ওপৰত সন্দেহ কৰিবলৈ লয় আৰু এৰিষ্ট'টলক চিঠিৰ যোগেদি ভাবুকিও দিয়াৰ কথা জনা যায়৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলেও আলেকজেণ্ডাৰৰ স্বৰ্গ সম্পৰ্কীয় ধাৰণাসমূহৰ অশুদ্ধতা আঙুলিয়াই দিবলৈ কুন্ঠাবোধ কৰা নাছিল৷ এনে কাৰণতে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ নাতি-ভতিজাক ৰাজকীয় মহলে বিশ্বাসঘাটকতাৰ বাবে দোষী সাবস্ত্য কৰি মৃত্যুদণ্ড দিছিল৷ জনশ্ৰুতি অনুসৰি এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ আলেকজেণ্ডাৰৰ মৃত্যুতো হাত থকাৰ কথা জনা যায়, কিন্তু এইসম্পৰ্কত কোনো প্ৰমাণ পোৱা হোৱা নাই৷ [14]

আলেকজেণ্ডাৰৰ মৃত্যুৰ পিছতে এথেন্সত ৰাজকীয় পক্ষৰ প্ৰতি অসন্তোষে গা কৰি উঠে৷ ইয়াৰ লগে লগে 'Eurymedon the hierophant' আৰু তেওঁৰ পক্ষই এৰিষ্ট'টলক হিশ্বৰক যথাৰ্থ সন্মান প্ৰদৰ্শন নকৰা বুলি দোষী সাব্যস্ত কৰে৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলে এথেন্স এৰিবলৈ বাধ্য হয় আৰু মাকৰ পুৰণি ঠাইলৈ গুচি যায়৷ [15][16] খ্ৰীষ্টপূৰ্ব ৩২২ শতিকাত তেওঁৰ স্বাভাৱিক কাৰণত 'Euboea' চহৰত মৃত্যু হয়৷ [17]

স্মৃতি

স্মৃতি

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মত অনুসৰি স্মৃতি হ'ল এটা অভিজ্ঞতাক মনত ৰখা আৰু এই মনত ৰখা কথাটোৰ অন্তৰ্ভাগৰ উপস্থিতিৰ পৰা অতীতত ঘটাৰ পাৰ্থক্য চিনিব পৰাৰ ক্ষমতা[18]৷ অন্য অৰ্থত, এৰিষ্ট'টলে De Anima ৰ যোগেদি দিয়া সংজ্ঞা অনুসৰি স্মৃতি একধৰণৰ মানসিক চিত্ৰ (phantasm) যি মানুহৰ সত্তা মুদ্ৰিত ( imprint) হৈ পৰে৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলে বিশ্বাস কৰিছিল যে এনধৰণৰ মানসিক চিত্ৰবোৰ অৰ্ধতৰল এক শাৰিৰীক অংগত মুদ্ৰিত হৈ পৰে আৰু কিছু পৰিৱৰ্ত্তনৰ যোগেদি স্মৃতিলৈ ৰূপান্তৰিত হয়৷ এই অৰ্ধতৰল শাৰিৰীক অংগ অৰ্থাৎ স্নায়ুতন্ত্ৰই যেতিয়া কোনো জটিল উদ্দীপক (stimuli)ৰ সকলোবোৰ মানসিক চিত্ৰ একেলগে মুদ্ৰন কৰিব নোৱাৰে তেতিয়াই স্মৃতিৰ উৎপত্তি হয়৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ ধাৰণা অনুসৰি এই পৰিৱৰ্ত্তন সমূহ মানুহৰ অনুভৱ বা চিন্তাৰ দৰে একেই৷ [19] অনুভৱ (sense perception) ৰ সম্পূৰ্ণ প্ৰক্ৰিয়াৰ শেষ উৎপাদন সামগ্ৰীটো হৈছে স্নায়ুতন্ত্ৰত মুদ্ৰিত হোৱা এই মানসিক চিত্ৰবোৰ৷ দেখি বা শুনি হোৱা যিকোনো অভিজ্ঞতাৰে এনেদৰে মানসিক চিত্ৰবোৰ স্মৃতি হিচাপে ৰৈ যায়৷ [20]

এৰিষ্ট'টলে স্মৃতি শব্দটো মূলত: দুটা অৰ্থত ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিছিল৷ প্ৰথমটো হ'ল, কোনো অভিজ্ঞতাই জন্ম দিয়া অনু্ভূতিৰ মুদ্ৰন কৰাৰ ক্ষমতা আৰু দ্বিতীয়টো হ'ল, কোনো বিশেষ সময়ত হোৱা এনে মুদ্ৰনৰ সৈতে উপজা বৌদ্ধিক অস্থিৰতা (intellectual anxiety)৷ যিহেতু স্মৃতি কিছু সময়ৰ বিৰতিত উৎপন্ন হয়, ই কেৱল অনুভূতি বা কোনো ভাৱ নহয়৷ সেয়ে স্মৃতি অতীতৰ [21] , অনুমান (prediction) ভৱিষ্যতৰ আৰু অনুভূতি (sensation) বৰ্তমানৰ৷ আমাৰ মনত থকা মানসিক চিত্ৰ মুদ্ৰিত ৰুপবোৰ হঠাতে আনিব (retrieval) নোৱাৰি৷ ইয়াৰ বাবে এক মাধ্যম (transitional channel ) ৰ প্ৰয়োজন হয়৷

এৰিষ্ট'টলে ধাৰণা কৰিছিল যে ৰসবোধ কম (slow-witted) থকা লোকৰ স্মৃতি শক্তি তুলনামূলকভাৱে বেছি ভাল হ'ব কাৰণ, তেনে লোকৰ মগজুত থকা জুলীয়া পদাৰ্থবোৰে স্মৃতিশক্তিৰ লগত জড়িত অংগৰ মুদ্ৰন ক্ষমতা নোহোৱা নকৰে৷ তেওঁ বিশ্বাস কৰিছিল যে শিশু আৰু বৃদ্ব লোকে ভালদৰে অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ মুদ্ৰণ কৰিব নোৱাৰে৷ শিশুৰ দেহৰ বৃদ্বিৰ লগে লগে মগজুৰো ঘনাই পৰিৱৰ্ত্তন হয়৷ তেনেদৰে বৃদ্ধ লোকৰ অংগসমূহৰ কাৰ্য্যক্ষমতাও বয়সৰ লগে লগে কমি আহে৷ যিহেতু বৌদ্ধিক কাৰ্য্য (intellectual functions) স্মৃতিৰ সৈতে জড়িত নহয়, সেয়ে সময়বোধ থকা কিছুমান জীৱ-জন্তুৰো স্মৃতি থকা দেখা যায়৷

স্মৰণ

এৰিষ্টট'লে ধাৰণা কৰিছিল যে যিহেতু মানুহে সকলোধৰণৰ অনুভূতিৰ পৰা মানসিক চিত্ৰ বা মুদ্ৰণ গ্ৰহণ কৰিব পাৰে গতিকে মানুহৰ মনত নিৰন্তৰভাৱে নতুন নতুন অভিজ্ঞতাৰ পৰা ন ন মুদ্ৰিত স্মৃতি সৃষ্টি হয়৷ এই মানসিক চিত্ৰৰ সন্ধান কৰোতে মানুহে প্ৰকৃততে স্মৃতিৰেই সন্ধান কৰে৷[22] এনেদৰে সন্ধান কৰোঁতে এটাৰ পিছত আনটোকৈ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ আহিলে স্মৰণ (Recollection) প্ৰক্ৰিয়াৰ সৃষ্টি হয়৷ যেতিয়া মানুহে কোনো বিশেষ অভিজ্ঞতা মনত পেলায়, তেতিয়া মানুহৰ মগজুৱে পূৰ্বৰ কিছুমান অভিজ্ঞতাৰ মুদ্ৰিত ৰূপটোৰ সন্ধান কৰে আৰু এইসমূহে সেই বিশেষ অভিজ্ঞতাটো মনত পেলোৱাত সহায় কৰে৷ [23]

গতিকে মনত পেলোৱা (Recollection) হ'ল স্মৃতিত থকা কোনো মুদ্ৰণ কিছু সময়ৰ পিছত উলিয়াই অনা প্ৰক্ৰিয়া৷ এনেদৰে সাঁচি থোৱা কোনো তথ্যৰ পুনৰ উলিয়াই অনাৰ প্ৰক্ৰিয়া নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে মানুহৰ 'mnemonic' ক্ষমতাৰ ওপৰত নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে৷ [24] কেৱল মানুহেহে বৌদ্ধিক কাৰ্য্যৰ মুদ্ৰণসমূহ যেনে সংখ্যা বা শব্দ আদি মনত ৰাখিবলৈ সক্ষম৷ অৱশ্যে সময়বোধ থকা অন্য প্ৰণিসমূহেও পূৰ্বৰ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ মনত পেলাব পাৰে৷ কোনো এটা মুদ্ৰণ মনত পেলালে ইয়াৰ লগত কোনো প্ৰকাৰে জড়িত থকা অন্য বহুতু মুদ্ৰণ স্মৃতি হৈ মনলৈ আহিব পাৰে৷ [25]

এৰিষ্টটলে বিশ্বাস কৰিছিল যে কিছুমান চিন্তাৰ সমষ্টিৰে মনলৈ আনি দিয়া বিশেষ মুদ্ৰণবোৰ তিনিধৰণৰ সম্পৰ্কেৰে ইটো-সিটোৰ সৈতে সংযোজিত হৈ থাকে৷ এইবোৰ হৈছে-মিল (similarity),অমিল (contrast) আৰু সংস্পৰ্শ (contiguity)৷ এই তিনিটাই তেওঁৰ 'Laws of Association' ৰ মূল উপাদান৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলে ধাৰণা কৰিছিল যে অতীতৰ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ মানুহৰ মনতে লুকাই থাকে৷ এটা শক্তিয়ে প্ৰকৃতি অভিজ্ঞতাটো এই পূৰ্বৰ অভিজ্ঞতাসমূহ জাগ্ৰত কৰি উলিয়াই আনে৷ তেওঁৰ মতে সংযোগ (association) হৈছে মানসিক সত্ত্বাত লুকাই থকা এক শক্তি৷ ই পুৰ্বৰ অভিজ্ঞতাৰ অপ্ৰকাশিক অংশক জাগ্ৰত কৰি তোলে আৰু মনত পেলোৱাত সহায় কৰে৷ [26]

চিন্তা (Thought)

যুক্তি (Logic)

Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a scholar of the 15th century A.D.

এৰিষ্ট'টলে পোনপ্ৰথমে যুক্তি সম্পৰ্কীয় চিন্তা চৰ্চা কৰা বুলি জনা যায়৷ তেওঁৰ ধাৰণাসমূহ উনৈশ শতিকা পৰ্যন্ত পশ্চিমীয়া দেশসমূহত প্ৰভূতভাৱে প্ৰচলিত আছিল৷[27]

ইতিহাস

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মত অনুসৰি কাৰক (reasoning) সম্পৰ্কত পূৰ্বতে তেওঁৰ বিশেষ একো ক'বলগীয়া নাছিল ৷ (On the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'").[28] অৱশ্যে প্লেটোৰ তথ্য অনুসৰি এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ পূৰ্বেই শব্দৰ শুদ্ধ ব্যৱহাৰৰ প্ৰতি গুৰুত্ব দিয়া Prodicus of Ceos য়ে 'বাক্য-গাঁথনি' (syntax ) ৰ প্ৰবৰ্ত্তন কৰিছিল৷ সেইদৰে 'যুক্তি (Logic) ৰ ধাৰণা 'dialectics' ৰ পৰা উদ্ভৱ হোৱা বুলি জনা যায়৷ [29]

ভূ-বিজ্ঞান

ছাৰ্লছ ল্যেল (Charles Lyell ) ৰ Principles of Geology নামৰ গ্ৰন্থখনত উল্লেখ কৰা অনুসৰি-

He [Aristotle] refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the Palus Maeotis within sixty years from his own time ... He alludes ... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten.

He says [12th chapter of his Meteorics] 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'[30]

পদাৰ্থ বিদ্যা

পাচঁটা উপাদান

এম্পেড’ক্লেচে আগবঢ়োৱা চাৰিটা উপাদানৰ ধাৰণাৰ লগত এৰিষ্ট'টলে পঞ্চমটো উপাদানৰ ধাৰণা আগবঢ়াই,

  • পৃথিৱী (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি চেঁচা আৰু শুকান; ই আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ গোটা বস্তুৰ সৈতে একে।
  • পানী (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি চেঁচা আৰু ভিজা; ই আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ তৰল পদাৰ্থৰ সৈতে একে।
  • বায়ু (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি তপত আৰু ভিজা; ই আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ গেছীয় পদাৰ্থৰ সৈতে একে।
  • জুই (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি তপত আৰু শুকান; ইয়াৰ আধুনিক ধাৰণাৰ প্লাজমা আৰু তাপৰ সৈতে সম্পৰ্ক আছে।
  • ইথাৰ (ধ্ৰুপদী উপাদান), যি মহাকাশত বিয়পি আছে আৰু যিহেৰে গ্ৰহ নক্ষত্ৰবোৰ গঠিত হৈছে।


Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is "natural motion"—motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles.

গতি

Aristotle defined motion as the actuality of a potentiality as such.[31] Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the "as such" to the definition is critical to understanding it.[32]

Causality, the four causes

Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active causal factors:

  • Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino.
  • The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create his drawings.
  • The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over.
  • The final cause is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or teleos is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.

Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, since it cannot fall of its own accord.

Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.

আলোকবিজ্ঞান (Optics)

Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a camera obscura can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in Problemata. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.[33]

Chance and spontaneity

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place.

Metaphysics

Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the University of Freiburg im Breisgau

Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."

Substance, potentiality and actuality

Aristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence (ousia) in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.[34]

Universals and particulars

Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.

জীৱবিজ্ঞান আৰু ভেষজবিদ্যা

In Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded.

Octopus swimming
Leopard shark

Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as History of Animals, Generation of Animals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (selachians).[35]

জীৱজগতৰ শ্ৰেণীবিভাজন

Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of hemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).[36]

Influence on Hellenistic medicine

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.[37] It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.

The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[38] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[39] Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.[40]

Psychology

Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psyche, often known by its Latin title De Anima), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them.

For Aristotle, the soul (psyche) was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the form of a living being. Since all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).[41]

Practical philosophy

Ethics

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (normally translated as soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).[42]

Politics

Like Aristotle, conservatives generally accept the world as it is; they distrust the politics of abstract reason – that is, reason divorced from experience.
Benjamin Wiker[43]

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".[44] He also famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal". Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.[45]

Rhetoric and poetics

Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.[46] For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.[47] Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.[48]

While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.[49] The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.[50]

Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.[51]

কিংবদন্তী

Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, by Rembrandt

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ মৃত্যুৰ ২৩০০ বছৰৰ পিছতো তেওঁ বৰ্তমানলৈকে বিশ্বৰ আটাইতকৈ প্ৰভাৱশালী ব্যক্তিসকলৰ এজন বুলি পৰিগণিত হৈ আছে৷ মানুহৰ জ্ঞানৰ প্ৰতিখন ক্ষেত্ৰলৈকে তেওঁ অৰিহণা আগবঢ়াই গৈছে৷ তাৰ লগতে নতুন নতুন ক্ষেত্ৰৌ তেওঁ উদ্ভাৱন কৰি গৈছে৷ দাৰ্শনিক 'Bryan Magee'ৰ মতে তেওঁৰ সমপৰ্য্যায়ৰ জ্ঞান কোনো অন্য কোনো ব্যক্তিৰে থাকিব নে নাথাকে সেয়ে সন্দেহজনক ("it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did")[52] অসংখ্য কৃতিত্ব সমূহৰ ভিতৰত অন্যতম হৈছে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ যুক্তি (formal logic) উদ্ভাৱন[53] , প্ৰাণীবিজ্ঞান আৰু বৈজ্ঞানিক পদ্ধতিৰ প্ৰতি অতুলনীয় অৱদান৷[54][55]

পৰৱৰ্ত্তী গ্ৰীক দাৰ্শনিকসকল

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ কৰ্মসমূহৰ প্ৰভাৱ তেওঁৰ Peripatetic school ত শিষ্যৰ সংখ্যা বঢ়াৰ লগে লগে বৃদ্ধি পাবলৈ ধৰিলে৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ প্ৰিয় শিষ্যসকলৰ ভিতৰত এৰিষ্ট'জেনাছ (Aristoxenus), Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, আৰু Theophrastus আদিয়ে প্ৰধান৷ আলেকজেণ্ডাৰ ( Alexander the Great) ৰ ওপৰতো এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ বিস্তৰ প্ৰভাৱ পৰা দেখা যায়৷ অৱশ্যে দুৰ-দুৰণিলৈ ভ্ৰমণ কৰিবলৈ লোৱাৰ পৰা আলেকজেণ্ডাৰে ক্ৰমান্বয়ে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰৰ ভৌগোলিক তথ্যসমূহৰ ত্ৰুতিসমূহ ধৰা পেলাবলৈ ধৰিলে৷ গতিকে এৰিষ্ট'টলে তেওঁৰ কৰ্মসমূহ ৰাজহুৱা কৰাৰ সময়ত আলেকজেণ্ডাৰে এনেদৰে অসন্তোষ প্ৰকাশ কৰিছিল- "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[56]

বিজেন্টিন (Byzantine) শিক্ষাবিদসকলৰ ওপৰত প্ৰভাৱ

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ প্ৰয়ভাগ লিখনিৰে পাঠ লিখি ৰাখি গ্ৰীক লেখক (Greek Christian scribe) সকলে তেওঁৰ কৰ্মৰাজিৰ সংৰক্ষণত গুৰুত্বপূৰ্ণ ভূমিকা লৈছিল৷ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ কৰ্মৰাজিৰ ওপৰত বিস্তৰভাৱে অধ্যয়ন কৰা আৰু মতামত আগবঢ়োৱা গ্ৰীক শিক্ষাবিদসকলৰ ভিতৰত জন ফিল'পনাছ ( John Philoponus), এলিয়াছ (Elias) আৰু ডেভিদ ( David), ষ্টিফেন অব আলেকজেণ্ড্ৰিয়া ( Stephen of Alexandria) আদি অন্যতম৷ [57] জন ফিল'পনাছক প্ৰধানকৈ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ বিশ্বব্ৰহ্মাণ্ডৰ অনন্তকাল (eternity of the world) কে ধৰি অন্যান্য ধাৰণাসমূহৰ সমালোক হিচাপে জনা যায়৷ [58]

ইছলামিক ধৰ্মতাত্ত্বিক (theologian) সকলৰ ওপৰত প্ৰভাৱ

ইছলামিক ধৰ্মতত্ত্বত আটাইতকৈ সন্মানীয় পশ্চিমীয়া চিন্তাবিদসকলৰ ভিতৱত এৰিষ্ট'টল অন্যতম৷ এৰিষ্ট'তলৰ প্ৰয়ভাগ কৰ্মৰাজিয়ে আৰবী ভাষালৈ অনদিত হৈছে আৰু মুছলিম দাৰ্শনিক, বিজ্ঞানী আৰু চিন্তাবিদসকলে এইসমূহ গভীৰভাৱে অধ্যন কৰিছে৷ [59] ইয়াৰে ভিতৰত Averroes, Avicenna আৰু Alpharabius আদিয়ে এৰিষ্ট'টল সম্পৰ্কে বিস্তৃতভাৱে লিখি গৈছে৷ Alkindus এ এৰিষ্ট'টলক দৰ্শনৰ এক একক আৰু উৎকৃষ্ট প্ৰতিনিধি হিচাপে গণ্য কৰিছিল৷[60] তেওঁ এৰিষ্ট'টলক ভৱিষ্যতৰ সকলো দাৰ্শনিকৰ বাবে পথ পদৰ্শক ("exemplar") বুলিও উল্লেখ কৰি গৈছে৷ [61] মধ্যযুগৰ মুছলিম শিক্ষাবিদসকলে এৰিষ্ট'টলক প্ৰথম শিক্ষক বুলি গণ্য কৰিছিল৷ [62] এৰিষ্ট'টলক পোণ-প্ৰথমে শিক্ষক বুলিও মুছলিম শিক্ষাবিদসকলেই আখ্যা দিছিল৷[63]

পশ্চিমীয়া খ্ৰীষ্টান ধৰ্মতাত্ত্বিক সকলৰ ওপৰত প্ৰভাৱ

প্ৰাচীন গ্ৰীক সাহিত্য অপ্ৰচলিত হৈ থকাৰ বাবে ৬০০ এ ডিৰ পৰা ১০০০ লৈকে এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ বিষয়ে পশ্চিমীয়া ধৰ্মত্ত্বত কোনো উল্লেখ নাছিল৷ কেৱল ব'থিয়াছ (Boethius) এ তেওঁৰ 'Organon' নামৰ গ্ৰন্থখনৰ লেটিন ভাষালৈ কৰা তৰ্জমাৰ বাবেহে কিছু কিছু লোকে এৰিষ্ট'টল সম্পৰ্কে জানিছিল৷ বাৰ আৰু তেৰ শতিকাত অৱষ্যে তেওঁৰ কৰ্মৰাজি লেটিনলৈ তৰ্জমা হোৱাৰ লগে লগে চিন্তাবিদ সকল এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ অৱদান সম্পৰ্কে আগ্ৰহী হৈ উঠিল৷ [64]

থ'মাছ একোইনাছ (Thomas Aquinas) এ এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ কৰ্মৰাজিৰ তৰ্জমা কৰিবলৈ লোৱাৰ পিছৰ পৰা এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ খ্যাতি বিয়পিবলৈ ধৰিলে৷ [65] সেইসময়ৰ পশ্চিমীয়া শিক্ষাবিদসকলে এৰিষ্ট'টল খ্যাতনাম দাৰ্শনিক ' ( "The Philosopher") হিচাপে আদৰি লয়৷

প্ৰবুদ্ধিৰ পৰৱৰ্ত্তী কাল (Post-Enlightenment)ৰ চিন্তাবিদসকলৰ ওপৰত প্ৰভাৱ

ফ্ৰেডৰিক নিৎসে ( Friedrich Nietzsche) নামৰ জাৰ্মান দাৰ্শনিকগৰাকীয়ে তেওঁৰ প্ৰায় সকলো ৰাজনৈতিক দৰ্শন এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ পৰাই লৈছিল বুলি জনা যায়৷ [66] আয়ন ৰেণ্ড (Ayn Rand) নামৰ অন্য এগৰাকী চিন্তাবিদে এৰিষ্ট'টলক 'ইতিহাসৰ আটাইতকৈ মহান দাৰ্শনিক ' ( "the greatest philosopher in history") বুলি আখ্যা দিছিল৷ [67]

অৱদান

এৰিষ্ট'টলৰ উদ্ধাৰ পোৱা প্ৰায়ভাগ কৰ্মৰাজি 'Corpus Aristotelicum' নামৰ গ্ৰন্থত সন্নিবিষ্ট কৰা হৈছে৷

সন্মান

এৰিষ্ট'টলে পৃথিৱীৰ দক্ষিণভাগত এন্টাৰ্কটিকাৰ অৱস্থিতিৰ সম্পৰ্কে পোনপ্ৰথমে কৰা অনুমানৰ প্ৰতি সন্মান জনাই তেওঁৰ নামেৰে এন্টাৰ্কটিকাৰ গ্ৰাহাম লেণ্ডত থকা এৰিষ্ট'টল পৰ্বত (Aristotle Mountains) নামকৰণ কৰা হৈছে৷ [68]


তথ্যসুত্ৰ

  1. That these undisputed dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BCE, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown already by August Boeckh (Kleine Schriften VI 195); for further discussion, see Felix Jacoby on FGrHist 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, p. 253.
  2. Barnes 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 6.
  3. Barnes 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 9.
  4. Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106 BC – 43 BC). "flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles". Academica. http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 25 January 2007. 
  5. Jonathan Barnes, "Life and Work" in The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle (1995), p. 9.
  6. Campbell, Michael. "Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Aristotle". Behind the Name: The Etymology and History of First Names. www.behindthename.com. http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 6 April 2012. 
  7. McLeisch, Kenneth Cole (1999). Aristotle: The Great Philosophers. Routledge. পৃষ্ঠা. 5. ISBN 0-415-92392-1. 
  8. Anagnostopoulos, G., "Aristotle's Life", A Companion to Aristotle (Blackwell Publishing, 2009), p. 4.
  9. Carnes Lord, Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
  10. 10.0 10.1 Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972
  11. 11.0 11.1 Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.58–59
  12. William George Smith,Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 3, p. 88
  13. Neill, Alex; Aaron Ridley (1995). The Philosophy of Art: Readings Ancient and Modern. McGraw Hill. পৃষ্ঠা. 488. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0070461929/. 
  14. Peter Green, Alexander of Macedon, 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.379,459
  15. Jones, W.T. (1980). The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. পৃষ্ঠা. 216. http://www.amazon.com/dp/0155383124/. 
  16. Vita Marciana 41, cf. Aelian Varia historica 3.36, Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition, Göteborg, 1957, T44a-e.
  17. Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang Haase Aristotle's Will
  18. Bloch, David (2007). Aristotle on Memory and Recollection. পৃষ্ঠা. 12. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=QwTHng_5RqAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection&ots=Mx4oCdBGv-&sig=RI_bdGZvcYi7-dT_Em547aTi2XE#v=onepage&q=Aristotle%20on%20Memory%20and%20Recollection&f=false. 
  19. Bloch 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 61.
  20. Carruthers, Mary (2007). The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture. পৃষ্ঠা. 16. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dntrAnqfIasC&oi=fnd&pg=PR8&dq=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times&ots=we1jd9n54J&sig=Lr9XAjRR9tiUyA0rCgI04VzEuKo#v=onepage&q=The%20book%20of%20memory%3A%20the%20study%20of%20memory%20in%20medieval%20times&f=false. 
  21. Bloch 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 25.
  22. Warren, Howard (1921). A History of the Association Psychology. পৃষ্ঠা. 30. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&ots=YfWh-rerz2&sig=1U6rgT1pNbwy18xC50m9kopXVXw#v=onepage&q=The%20history%20of%20the%20association%20of%20psychology&f=false. 
  23. Warren 1921, পৃষ্ঠা. 25.
  24. Carruthers 2007, পৃষ্ঠা. 19.
  25. Warren 1921, পৃষ্ঠা. 296.
  26. Warren 1921, পৃষ্ঠা. 259.
  27. Corcoran, John (2009). “Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic”. History and Philosophy of Logic, 30: 1–20.
  28. Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. প্ৰকাশক Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. 
  29. Bocheński, 1951.
  30. Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, 1832, p.17
  31. Physics 201a10–11, 201a27–29, 201b4–5
  32. Sachs, Joe (2005), "Aristotle: Motion and its Place in Nature", Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ 
  33. Michael Lahanas. "Optics and ancient Greeks". Mlahanas.de. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 26 April 2009. 
  34. Aristotle, Metaphysics VIII 1043a 10–30
  35. Singer, Charles. A short history of biology. Oxford 1931.
  36. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 pp. 348
  37. Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy pp 252
  38. Mason, A History of the Sciences pp 56
  39. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, pp 90–94; quotation from p 91
  40. Annas, Classical Greek Philosophy, p 252
  41. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article "Psychology".
  42. Nicomachean Ethics Book I. See for example chapter 7 1098a.
  43. "Aristotle: Father of political conservatism". Wnd.com. 14 August 2010. http://www.wnd.com/2010/08/191121। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 15 October 2012. 
  44. Politics 1253a19–24
  45. Ebenstein, Alan; William Ebenstein (2002). Introduction to Political Thinkers. Wadsworth Group. পৃষ্ঠা. 59. 
  46. Aristotle, Poetics I 1447a
  47. Aristotle, Poetics III
  48. Aristotle, Poetics IV
  49. Aristotle, Poetics VI
  50. Aristotle, Poetics XXVI
  51. Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), The Complete Fables By Aesop Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0-14-044649-4 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi–xii.
  52. Magee, Bryan (2010). The Story of Philosophy. Dorling Kindersley. পৃষ্ঠা. 34. 
  53. W. K. C. Guthrie (1990). "A history of Greek philosophy: Aristotle : an encounter". Cambridge University Press. p.156. ISBN 0-521-38760-4
  54. "Aristotle (Greek philosopher) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 26 April 2009. 
  55. Durant, Will (1926 (2006)). The Story of Philosophy. প্ৰকাশক United States: Simon & Schuster, Inc.. পৃষ্ঠা. 92. ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4. 
  56. Plutarch, Life of Alexander
  57. Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed London, 1990, 20, 28, 35–36.
  58. Richard Sorabji, ed. Aristotle Transformed (London, 1990) 233–274.
  59. Encyclopedia of Islam, Aristutalis
  60. Rasa'il I, 103, 17, Abu Rida
  61. Comm. Magnum in Aristotle, De Anima, III, 2, 43 Crawford
  62. al-mua'llim al-thani, Aristutalis
  63. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1996). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. Curzon Press. পৃষ্ঠা. 59–60. ISBN 0-7007-0314-4. 
  64. Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  65. Aristotelianism in the Renaissance entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  66. Durant, p. 86
  67. Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy, Polity Press, 2007, passim.
  68. Aristotle Mountains. SCAR Composite Antarctic Gazetteer.

লগতে চাওক

The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.

  • Ackrill J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA.
  • Ackrill, J. L. (1981). Aristotle the Philosopher. প্ৰকাশক Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 
  • Adler, Mortimer J. (1978). Aristotle for Everybody. প্ৰকাশক New York: Macmillan.  A popular exposition for the general reader.
  • Ammonius (1991). Cohen, S. Marc; Matthews, Gareth B. eds. On Aristotle's Categories. প্ৰকাশক Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2688-X. 
  • Aristotle (1908–1952). The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W. D. Ross, 12 vols. প্ৰকাশক Oxford: Clarendon Press.  These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
  • Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
  • Barnes J. (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press.
  • Bocheński, I. M. (1951). Ancient Formal Logic. প্ৰকাশক Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. 
  • Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
  • Burnyeat, M. F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
  • Cantor, Norman F.; Klein, Peter L., eds (1969). Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle. Monuments of Western Thought. 1. প্ৰকাশক Waltham, Mass: Blaisdell Publishing Co.. 
  • Chappell, V. (1973). Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696.
  • Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
  • Ferguson, John (1972). Aristotle. প্ৰকাশক New York: Twayne Publishers. 
  • Frede, Michael. (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Fuller, B.A.G. (1923). Aristotle. History of Greek Philosophy. 3. প্ৰকাশক London: Cape. 
  • Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima, Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF.
  • Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
  • Guthrie, W. K. C. (1981). A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. 
  • Halper, Edward C. (2007). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha — Delta, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6.
  • Halper, Edward C. (2005). One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6.
  • Irwin, T. H. (1988). Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-824290-5.
  • Jaeger, Werner (1948). Robinson, Richard. ed. Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development (2nd সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
  • Jori, Alberto. (2003). Aristotele, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1.
  • Kiernan, Thomas P., ed (1962). Aristotle Dictionary. প্ৰকাশক New York: Philosophical Library. 
  • Knight, Kelvin. (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
  • Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Lloyd, G. E. R. (1968). Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9.
  • Lord, Carnes. (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
  • Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  • McKeon, Richard (1973). Introduction to Aristotle (2d সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 
  • Owen, G. E. L. (1965c). "The Platonism of Aristotle". Proceedings of the British Academy খণ্ড 50: 125–150.  [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
  • Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
  • Plato (1979). Allen, Harold Joseph; Wilbur, James B. eds. The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle. প্ৰকাশক Buffalo: Prometheus Books. 
  • Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.
  • Rose, Lynn E. (1968). Aristotle's Syllogistic. প্ৰকাশক Springfield: Charles C Thomas Publisher. 
  • Ross, Sir David (1995). Aristotle (6th সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক London: Routledge.  A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.
  • Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
  • Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally.
  • Swanson, Judith (1992). The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy. প্ৰকাশক Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 
  • Taylor, Henry Osborn (1922). "Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology". Greek Biology and Medicine. Archived from the original on 11 February 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html. 
  • Veatch, Henry B. (1974). Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation. প্ৰকাশক Bloomington: Indiana U. Press.  For the general reader.
  • Woods, M. J. (1991b). "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics". Aristotle and the Later Tradition. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy. Suppl. পৃষ্ঠা. 41–56.