কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা
কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা (কৃবু)[1][2] বা আৰ্টিফিশ্বিয়েল ইণ্টেলিজেঞ্চ (এআই) হৈছে সংগণক ব্যৱস্থাৰ সেই সক্ষমতা, যি সাধাৰণতে মানৱ বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ সৈতে জড়িত কাৰ্যসমূহ, যেনে শিকা, যুক্তিতৰ্ক কৰা, মস্যা সমাধান, প্ৰত্যক্ষণ, সিদ্ধান্ত গ্ৰহণ আদি সম্পাদন কৰিব পাৰে।[3][4] এয়া সংগণক বিজ্ঞানৰ এখন গৱেষণাক্ষেত্ৰ, যি এনে পদ্ধতি আৰু তন্ত্ৰাংশসামগ্ৰী গঠন আৰু অধ্যয়ন কৰে, যিয়ে যন্ত্ৰক নিজৰ পৰিৱেশ অনুধাৱন কৰিবলৈ সক্ষম কৰে আৰু শিক্ষণ তথা বুদ্ধিমত্তা ব্যৱহাৰ কৰি নিৰ্ধাৰিত লক্ষ্যত উপনীত হোৱাৰ সম্ভাৱনা সৰ্বাধিক কৰিবলৈ পদক্ষেপ লোৱাত সহায় কৰে।[5]
কৃবুৰ উল্লেখযোগ্য প্ৰয়োগবোৰৰ ভিতৰত আছে উন্নত খোজ ইঞ্জিন (যেনে গুগল চাৰ্ছ); পৰামৰ্শ ব্যৱস্থা (যিটো য়ুটিউব, এমাজন আৰু নেটফ্লিক্সে ব্যৱহাৰ কৰে); অসদ্ সহায়ক (যেনে গুগল এছিষ্টেণ্ট, চিৰি আৰু এলেক্সা); স্বয়ংচালিত যানবাহন (যেনে ৱেম'); উৎপাদনী আৰু সৃজনশীল সঁজুলি (যেনে ভাষা প্ৰতিমান আৰু কৃবু দৃশ্যকলা); আৰু কৌশলগত ক্ৰীড়াত অতিবুদ্ধিবৃত্তিক খেল আৰু বিশ্লেষণ। অৱশ্যে বহু কৃবু প্ৰয়োগক কৃবু হিচাপে চিহ্নিত কৰা নহয়: “অত্যাধুনিক কৃবুৰ বহু কথাই সাধাৰণ প্ৰয়োগত মিলি গৈছে, প্ৰায়ে ইয়াক কৃবু বুলি কোৱা নহয়, কাৰণ কোনো কথা যথেষ্ট কাৰ্যকৰী আৰু প্ৰচলিত হৈ পৰিলে সেয়া আৰু কৃবু হিচাপে চিহ্নিত হৈ নাথাকে।”[6][7]
কৃবু গৱেষণাৰ বিভিন্ন উপক্ষেত্ৰসমূহ নিৰ্দিষ্ট লক্ষ্য আৰু নিৰ্দিষ্ট সঁজুলিৰ ব্যৱহাৰৰ ওপৰত কেন্দ্ৰীভূত। কৃবু গৱেষণাৰ পৰম্পৰাগত লক্ষ্যসমূহৰ ভিতৰত আছে শিকা, যুক্তিপ্ৰয়োগ, জ্ঞান উপস্থাপন, পৰিকল্পনা, স্বাভাৱিক ভাষা সংসাধন, অনুধাৱন আৰু ৰবটবিদ্যাত সহায় কৰা।[টোকা 1] এই লক্ষ্যবোৰ প্ৰাপ্ত কৰিবলৈ কৃবু গৱেষকসকলে বিভিন্ন কৌশল গ্ৰহণ আৰু সমন্বয় কৰিছে, যাৰ ভিতৰত আছে অনুসন্ধান আৰু গাণিতিক কাম্যতমকৰণ, বিধিবদ্ধ যুক্তি, কৃত্ৰিম স্নায়ুজাল আৰু পৰিসংখ্যা, পৰিক্ৰিয়াদি গৱেষণা আৰু অৰ্থনীতিভিত্তিক পদ্ধতি।[টোকা 2] কৃবুৱে মনোবিজ্ঞান, ভাষাবিজ্ঞান, দৰ্শন, স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞান আৰু অন্যান্য শাস্ত্ৰৰ ওপৰতো নিৰ্ভৰ কৰে।[8] অ'পেন এআই, গুগল ডিপমাইণ্ড আৰু মেটাৰ[9] দৰে প্ৰতিষ্ঠানসমূহে কৃত্ৰিম সাধাৰণ বুদ্ধিমত্তা (কৃসাবু) তৈয়াৰ কৰাৰ লক্ষ্য ৰাখে — এনে এক কৃবু যিয়ে প্ৰায় যিকোনো সংজ্ঞানাত্মক কাম অন্ততঃ মানুহৰ সমতুল্য দক্ষতাৰে সম্পন্ন কৰিব পাৰে।
কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা ১৯৫৬ চনত এটা আকাদেমীয় পাঠ্যবিষয় হিচাপে প্ৰতিষ্ঠিত হয়[10] আৰু ইয়াৰ ইতিহাসজুৰি একাধিক আশাবাদৰ পৰ্যায় অতিক্ৰম কৰে,[11][12] যাৰ পৰৱৰ্তী সময়ত হতাশা আৰু অৰ্থায়ন হ্ৰাসৰ সময়কাল আহে, যাক কৃবু শীতকাল বুলি জনা যায়।[13][14] ২০১২ চনৰ পিছৰ পৰা অৰ্থায়ন আৰু আগ্ৰহ ব্যাপকভাৱে বৃদ্ধি পায়, যেতিয়া চিত্ৰলেখ প্ৰক্ৰিয়াকৰণ একক স্নায়ুজালক ত্বৰান্বিত কৰিবলৈ ব্যৱহাৰ হ’বলৈ ধৰে আৰু গভীৰ শিক্ষণ পূৰ্বৰ কৃবু কৌশলসমূহক চেৰ পেলাই যায়।[15] ২০১৭ চনৰ পিছত ৰূপান্তৰক স্থাপত্যৰ আবিৰ্ভাৱৰ ফলত এই বৃদ্ধি অধিক খৰতকীয়া হয়।[16] ২০২০ৰ দশকত উন্নত উৎপাদনী কৃবুৰ দ্ৰুত অগ্ৰগতিয়ে এক চলিত সময়কালৰ সৃষ্টি কৰে, যাক এআই বুম বুলি কোৱা হয়। উৎপাদনী কৃবুৰ সমল তৈয়াৰী আৰু সংশোধনৰ ক্ষমতাই একাধিক অনাকাংক্ষিত পৰিণতি আৰু ক্ষতিৰ কাৰণ হৈ পৰিছে। নৈতিক উদ্বেগ উত্থাপিত হৈছে কৃবুৰ দীৰ্ঘম্যাদী প্ৰভাৱ আৰু সম্ভাৱ্য অস্তিত্বৰ সংকটক লৈ।[17] ফলস্বৰূপে নিয়ন্ত্ৰণমূলক নীতি নিৰ্দেশনা সন্দৰ্ভত আলোচনা আৰম্ভ হৈছে, যাতে প্ৰযুক্তিটোৰ নিৰাপত্তা আৰু সুফল নিশ্চিত কৰিব পৰা যায়।
ইতিহাস
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]চিন্তাশক্তিসম্পন্ন কৃত্ৰিম জীৱ পুৰণি সাধুকথা, কল্প-কাহিনীত দেখিবলৈ পোৱা গৈছিল। মেৰি শ্বেলিৰ ফ্ৰেংকেনষ্টাইন অথবা কাৰেল কাপেকৰ আৰ.ইউ.আৰ (R.U.R.- Rossum's Universal Robots)ত এইবোৰৰ আৰ্বিভাৱ হৈছিল। সেই চৰিত্ৰবোৰৰ কথা আৰু সিহঁতৰ কলা-কৌশলৰ কাহিনীয়ে বৰ্তমান কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ নীতিগত দিশত চৰ্চা লাভ কৰিছে।[18]
কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ গৱেষণা আৰম্ভ হৈছিল ১৯৫৬ চনৰ আমেৰিক যুক্তৰাষ্ট্ৰৰ ডাৰ্থমাউথ কলেজত। গৱেষণাটোৰ প্ৰতিষ্ঠাপক আছিল কাৰ্নেগি মিলন বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়ৰ এলেন নেৱেল আৰু হাৰবাৰ্ট ছিমন,মেচাছুটেটছ প্ৰযুক্তিবিদ্যা প্ৰতিষ্ঠানৰ জন মেককাৰ্থি, মাৰ্ভিন মিনস্কি আৰু আইবিএম কোম্পানীৰ আৰ্থাৰ ছেমুৱেল। উল্লেখযোগ্য যে,একেকেইজন মানুহে গৱেষণাটোক নেতৃত্বও দিছিল।[19]
১৯৭৪ৰ ফালে এইসম্পৰ্কীয় গৱেষণা সামান্যভাৱে স্ববিৰ হৈ পৰিল। ছাৰ জেমছ লাইটহিলৰ সমালোচনাই এই স্থবিৰতাত বিশেষ ভূমিকা ল'লে।[20] তদুপৰি আমেৰিকান কংগ্ৰেছেও কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ গৱেষণাৰ পৰিৱৰ্তে অইন উৎপাদনশীল প্ৰকল্পতহে ধন খৰচ কৰিবলৈ আগ্ৰহ দেখুৱালে। সেইকাৰণে পৰৱৰ্তী বছৰকেইটাক কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ শীতল সময় বুলি আখ্যা দিয়া হয়।[21]
১৯৮০ৰ আৰম্ভণিৰ সময়ছোৱাত কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ গৱেষণাই নতুন মোৰ পালে। বিশেষ ভূমিকা ল'লে কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰে এক বিশেষধৰণৰ প্ৰগ্ৰাম Expert Systems-ৰ ব্যৱসায়িক সফলতাই। এই প্ৰগ্ৰামটোৱে কৌশলী মানুহৰ জ্ঞান আৰু বিশ্লেষণাত্মক দক্ষতাসমূহৰ অনুকৃতি সৃষ্টি কৰিব পাৰিছিল।[22]

১৯৯০ৰ শেষৰফালে আৰু একবিংশ শতিকাৰ আগছোৱাত কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা কিছুমান ক্ষেত্ৰত বিশেষভাৱে প্ৰয়োগ হোৱা দেখিবলৈ পোৱা গ'ল। ডাটা মাইনিং, বস্তু সৰবৰাহ, চিকিৎসাক্ষেত্ৰ আছিল কেইখনমান উল্লেখযোগ্য ক্ষেত্ৰ।[23]
২০১১ চনত জিঅ'পাৰ্ডি (Jeopardy!) নামৰ আমেৰিকান কুইজ প্ৰতিযোগিতা বিশেষ খণ্ড এটাত আইবিএমৰ উত্তৰ দিব পৰা মেচিন ৱাটচনে পূৰ্বৰ দুজন মহান চেম্পিয়ন ব্ৰেড ৰুটাৰ আৰু কেন জেনিংগছক বিশাল ব্যৱধানত পৰাভুত কৰে।[24] উচ্চক্ষমতাসম্পন্ন কম্পিউটাৰ, এলগৰিথমত হোৱা ব্যাপক সফলতা আৰু বিপুল পৰিমাণৰ তথ্যলাভৰ সুচলতাই মেচিনৰ এই কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ এই অগ্ৰগতিত বিশেষ ভূমিকা লৈছিল।[25]

প্ৰকাৰ
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]
- প্ৰতিক্ৰিয়াশীল যন্ত্ৰ (Reactive Machines)
- সীমিত স্মৃতিৰ যন্ত্ৰ (Limited memory Machines)
- মনৰ তত্ত্ব (Theory of Mind)
- আত্ম-সচেতন কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা (Self-Aware AI)[26]
প্ৰতিক্ৰিয়াশীল যন্ত্ৰ: কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ প্ৰাথমিক ৰূপ। ইহঁতৰ কোনো অতীত-স্মৃতি নাথাকে আৰু অতীতৰ কোনো তথ্য ইহঁতে ভৱিষ্যতৰ কাৰণে ব্যৱহাৰ নকৰে।
সীমিত স্মৃতিৰ যন্ত্ৰ: অতীতৰ স্মৃতি ব্যৱহাৰ কৰিব পৰাকৈ সক্ষম। স্ব-চালিত বাহনত কেতবোৰ সিদ্ধান্ত লোৱাৰ ক্ষেত্ৰত এইটো ধাৰণা ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা হৈছে।
মনৰ তত্ত্ব: এইধৰণৰ কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাই মানুহৰ আৱেগ, বিশ্বাস, চিন্তা, প্ৰত্যাশা বুজি পাব বুলি ভবা হৈছে। সামাজিক সম্পৰ্ক ৰক্ষা কৰিব পৰাকৈ ইহঁত সমৰ্থৱান হ'ব। অৱশ্যে এইক্ষেত্ৰত কৰণীয় যথেষ্ট আছে।
আত্ম-সচেতন কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা: যন্ত্ৰ এটাক অতি-বুদ্ধিয়ক, মনোযোগসম্পন্ন, আৰু আত্ম-সচেতন হিচাপে গঢ় দিয়াৰ ধাৰণা। এইটো ধাৰণা বাস্তৱায়িত হ'লেই যন্ত্ৰ এটা সম্পূৰ্ণ মানৱলৈ ৰূপান্তৰিত হ'ব। কিন্তু এইধৰণৰ কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাসম্পন্ন যন্ত্ৰ এতিয়ালৈকে দৃশ্যমান হোৱ নাই।[27]
ব্যৱহাৰিক দিশত প্ৰয়োগ
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]বিজ্ঞান আৰু তথ্য-প্ৰযুক্তিৰ জগতত,দৈনন্দিন জীৱনত,ব্যৱসায়-বাণিজ্যৰ ক্ষেত্ৰত কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাৰ ব্যৱহাৰ আৰু প্ৰয়োগ ক্ৰমাৎ বাঢ়ি আহিছে। তলত কেইটামান উদাহৰণ দিয়া হৈছে:
- গুগল চাৰ্ছ ইঞ্জিনে ব্যৱহাৰ কৰা অনুমানজনিত সন্ধান (Predictive Search)
- চাকৰি-সম্বন্ধীয় ৱেবচাইট লিংকডইন
- জিমেইলৰ কথোপকথনত ব্যৱহাৰ হোৱা স্মাৰ্ট ৰিপ্লাইবোৰ
- গীত শুনা কিছুমান এপ্লিকেছন
- ম'বাইল বেংকিং এপ্লিকেছন
- গুগল মেপৰ দৰে যাত্ৰা-সহায়কবোৰ
- উবৰৰ দৰে টেক্সি সেৱাবোৰ[28]
- এপ'ল ম'বাইলত থকা ব্যক্তিগত সহায়কাৰী ছীৰী (Siri)
- আমাজ’ন কোম্পানীয়ে নিৰ্মাণ কৰা ব্যক্তিগত সহায়কাৰী এলেক্সা
- ই-কমাৰ্ছ ৱেবছাইট আমাজ’ন ডট কম
- বোলছবি আৰু ধাৰাবাহিক চোৱা ৱেবচাইট নেটফ্লিক্স[29]
- স্বাস্থ্যসম্বন্ধীয় সতৰ্কবাণী অথবা জাননী দিবলৈ ব্যৱহাৰ হোৱা পেজাৰ (Pager)[30]
টোকা
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]তথ্যসূত্ৰ
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]- ↑ বিশ্বাস, অতনু (২৬ ডিচেম্বৰ ২০২৩). "‘কৃবু’, ‘নবু’, না ‘এআই’?" (bn ভাষাত). সৃঞ্জয় বসুসংবাদ প্রতিদিন. https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/editorial/whats-in-a-name-here-is-what-ai-translated-in-bengali/pid/918861/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: ১৪ ফেব্ৰুৱাৰী ২০২৬.
- ↑ "কৃবুর প্রকোপে গবেষণার সংকট" (bn ভাষাত). বিজ্ঞানভাষবিজ্ঞানভাষ. ৯ ফেব্ৰুৱাৰী ২০২৬. https://bigyanbhash.org/কৃবুর-প্রকোপে-গবেষণার-সং/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: ১৪ ফেব্ৰুৱাৰী ২০২৬.
- ↑ "What is Artificial Intelligence?". NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/what-is-artificial-intelligence/। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 September 2025.
- ↑ বৰঠাকুৰ,দেৱাঞ্জন. "কৃত্ৰিম বুদ্ধিমত্তা". বিকাডপেডিয়া. http://as.vikaspedia.in/education/it-literacy/9959c39a49cd9f09bf9ae-9ac9c19a69cd9a79bf9ae9a49cd9a49be-9869f09c1-9ae9be9a89c19b99f0-9ad9f19bf9b79cd9af9a4#section-1। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 July 2019.
- ↑ Russell & Norvig (2021), পৃষ্ঠা. 1–4.
- ↑ AI set to exceed human brain power Archived 19 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine CNN.com (26 July 2006)
- ↑ Kaplan, Andreas; Haenlein, Michael (2019). "Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence". Business Horizons খণ্ড 62: 15–25. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004.
- ↑ Russell & Norvig (2021, §1.2).
- ↑ "Tech companies want to build artificial general intelligence. But who decides when AGI is attained?" (en ভাষাত). AP News. 4 April 2024. https://apnews.com/article/agi-artificial-general-intelligence-existential-risk-meta-openai-deepmind-science-ff5662a056d3cf3c5889a73e929e5a34। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 20 May 2025.
- ↑ উদ্ধৃতি ত্ৰুটি: অবৈধ
<ref>টেগ;Dartmouth workshopনামৰ refৰ বাবে কোনো পাঠ্য প্ৰদান কৰা হোৱা নাই - ↑ উদ্ধৃতি ত্ৰুটি: অবৈধ
<ref>টেগ;Succ1নামৰ refৰ বাবে কোনো পাঠ্য প্ৰদান কৰা হোৱা নাই - ↑ উদ্ধৃতি ত্ৰুটি: অবৈধ
<ref>টেগ;Fund01নামৰ refৰ বাবে কোনো পাঠ্য প্ৰদান কৰা হোৱা নাই - ↑ উদ্ধৃতি ত্ৰুটি: অবৈধ
<ref>টেগ;First AI Winterনামৰ refৰ বাবে কোনো পাঠ্য প্ৰদান কৰা হোৱা নাই - ↑ উদ্ধৃতি ত্ৰুটি: অবৈধ
<ref>টেগ;Second AI Winterনামৰ refৰ বাবে কোনো পাঠ্য প্ৰদান কৰা হোৱা নাই - ↑ উদ্ধৃতি ত্ৰুটি: অবৈধ
<ref>টেগ;Deep learning revolutionনামৰ refৰ বাবে কোনো পাঠ্য প্ৰদান কৰা হোৱা নাই - ↑ Toews (2023).
- ↑ তালুকদার, পারভেজ হুসেন (2023-09-19). "কৃত্রিম বুদ্ধিমত্তার ইতিবাচক ও নেতিবাচক ব্যবহার". জাগো নিউজ. https://www.jagonews24.com/technology/article/885862। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2025-05-12.
- ↑ "আৰ্কাইভ কপি". Archived from the original on 2020-03-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20200301043518/http://www.pamelamc.com/html/machines_who_think.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2019-07-17.
- ↑ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-790395-2.
- ↑ Lighthill, James (1973). "Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey". Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium. Science Research Council.
- ↑ Crevier, Daniel (1993), AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence, New York, NY: BasicBooks, ISBN 0-465-02997-3.
- ↑ "আৰ্কাইভ কপি". Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20071012025921/http://www.acm.org/class/1998/I.2.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2007-10-12.
- ↑ Kurzweil, Ray (2005). The Singularity is Near. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-03384-3.
- ↑ http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/science/17jeopardy-watson.html
- ↑ "আৰ্কাইভ কপি". Archived from the original on 2018-04-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20180413190018/https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/ask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 2019-07-17.
- ↑ https://www.govtech.com/computing/Understanding-the-Four-Types-of-Artificial-Intelligence.html
- ↑ Kumar,Chethan (৩১ আগষ্ট,২০১৮). "Artificial Intelligence: Definition, Types, Examples, Technologies". https://medium.com/@chethankumargn/artificial-intelligence-definition-types-examples-technologies-962ea75c7b9b। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 20 July 2019.
- ↑ http://medium.com/@the_manifest/16-examples-of-artificial-intelligence-ai-in-your-everyday-life-655b2e6a49de
- ↑ http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertadams/2017/01/10/10-powerful-examples-of-artificial-intelligence-in-use-today/#7bcbef26420d
- ↑ http://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/examples-ai-in-industry
গ্ৰন্থপঞ্জী
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]- Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving (5th সম্পাদনা). Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7. https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 17 December 2019.
- Nilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-5586-0467-4. https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 18 November 2019.
- Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. প্ৰকাশক New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1951-0270-3. https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 22 August 2020. Later edition: Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan (2017). Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents (2nd সম্পাদনা). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1071-9539-4. http://artint.info/index.html। আহৰণ কৰা হৈছে: 6 December 2017.
- Rich, Elaine; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar (2010). Artificial Intelligence (3rd সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. ISBN 978-0-0700-8770-5.
- Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th সম্পাদনা). প্ৰকাশক Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-1346-1099-3.
- সাঁচ:Russell Norvig 2003.
কৃবুৰ ইতিহাস
[সম্পাদনা কৰক]- সাঁচ:Crevier 1993
- সাঁচ:McCorduck 2004
- Newquist, H. P. (1994). The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think. প্ৰকাশক New York: Macmillan/SAMS. ISBN 978-0-6723-0412-5.
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